Aspectos tácticos y operativos
Publicado: Mar Nov 22, 2005 12:30 am
Aquí hay que recordar, si les parece bien , los aspectos teóricos y prácticos tanto tácticos como operativos que caracterizaban a cada ejército. Hay mucho de que hablar y es muy importante. Aquí les pongo un texto clásico sobre Cómo atacaba una división alemana de infantería:
Fuente:manual de tácitcas del ejército alemán editado por el War Dpt americano por Stp. Ambrose1) General principles for employment. German teaching envisages infantry divisions being employed to make a penetration in the enemy defensive positions through which armored and mechanized formations can pass. During the course of this war, however, no major attack has been carried out by infantry divisions without the support of Panzer divisons. In fact, more major attacks have been carried out by Panzer divisions, with only a minimum of ordinary infantry elements. Infantry divisions have been employed almost entirely in a role of consolidation, following up the armored and mechanized formations, systematically eliminating centers of resistance by-passed by the latter, or exploiting the latter's success by mopping up demoralized enemy defenses to the flanks of the armored breakthrough - in short, condolidating and holding the ground won by the mechanized formations.
In view of the unspectacular role allotted to the infantry division it is difficult to give information about other than minor infantry tactics, such as attacks on a small scale.
(2) Preparation for the attack. The method of forming up for an infantry assault on a prepared position is similar to that employed by the Panzer division. While the infantry is in assembly positions, the artillery makes all preparations for the support of the attack. it draws out hostile artillery fire and executes counterbattery fire against known enemy batteries. Large troop concentrations and especially important tagerts are taken under fire at great ranges. In order not to betray their full strength and intentions, the Germans withhold a portion of their batteries from these missions. They also try to deceive the enemy as to their intentions by covering other sectors simultaneously with fire. When possible, preparation for an attack is avoided during the day in order to prevent Allied observation. Occasionally, to obtain a success by surprise, the Germans launch attacks without artillery preparation. Surprise attacks also are launched under cover of darkness or fog.
The Germans normally occupy their line of departure by means of infiltration in order to avoid losses. Their orders direct what actions have to be taken when companies run into enemy defenses; when enemy fire is opened from the flank; when an enemy counterattack is launched; when objectives are reached; when companies appear to be getting dispersed; when part of a company pushes too far ahead of neighboring units or is held up.
The heavy machine guns of the rearward company and some of the mortars and heavy mortars are assigned to deal with enemy flanking fire.
The commander of the heavy company is normally at the battalion headquarters, from which he can control the fire of the infantry heavy support weapons.
(3) Deployment. (a) First stage. The Germans carry out deployment in two stages. They call the first stage Entfaltung or "shaking out", which is equivalent to the development of a march column according to US procedure. In the first stage, an infantry regiment normally deploys down to battalions, although the procedure may go down to companies if a high state of preparedness is necessary. Features of the first stage of deployment are as follows:
Companies retain their combat vehicles until their weapons and equipment arrive at the off-carrier position, which is located as far forward as the situation permits.
The Germans often place only on company forward, the main strength of the battalion being kept under control of the battalion commander as long as possible so that he may employ it in the most advantageous direction for attack.
If the condition of the terrain and enemy fire cause a change of intervals between units, the normal intervals are resumed as soon as possible.
Support weapons are used to cover the "shaking out" phase of deployment and the subsequent advance, the weapons being kept within the march column between the companies or behind the battalion.
After the first stage of deployment has been carried out, the leading elements of the batalion may be ordered to seize important tactical features.
When deploying by night or in woods, a careful reconnaissance is made, routes are marked, and strong protection is placed forward. Intervals between units are shorter.
After the first stage of deployment has been completed, the battalion commander marches with the leading elements and normally will send reconnaissance patrols ahead or reconnoiter the enemy position himself. The commanders of support weapons accompany him, reconnoitering the firing positions.
(b) Second stage. The second stage , called Entwicklung (development), is deployment in detail, which is the final action of the company extending itself down to platoons and squads. Features of the second stage of deployment are as follows:
The companies deploy in depth as soon as they come within range of artillery fire. An advance in columns of files is considered desirable because it affords a small target and the company is easier to control, but before adopting this formation the danger of enfilade fire is weighed.
If enemy fire and difficult terrain necessitate further deployment, the companies disperse in depth by sections. Reserves and support weapons also adopt open formations, but they remain far enough behind to avoid coming under the fire directed at the leading elements.
When the rifle companies are deployed, they exploit all possible cover as they advance, employing column-of-file formations with irregular distances. The leading elements are not extended until they are to engage in a fire fight. The elements that follow continue advancing in file.
In determining when to deploy, the Germans take into consideration additional physical strain placed on men when they march cross-country.
(4) Technique of attack. The infantry attack on prepared positions is made in the same sequence as that of the Panzer division, namely penetration, breakthrough, exploitation by the reserves. In the infantry attack, however, the first phase is a series of local attacks by so-called assault detachments (Stosstrupps) with the aim of overcoming key points in the enemy defenses, so that wedges into the enemy's forward positions can be established from which the attack can be driven forward into the depth of the enemy position, or rolling up the positions on either flank of the wedge.
Assault detachments normally are composed of infantry with engineers attached. A typical assault detachment consists of the following: one officer; obstacle clearing party, consisting of two to six men for each lane to be cleared, equipped with small arms, wire-cutters, and bangalore torpedoes and other explosives; embrasure-blasting party consisting of three or four men equipped with grenades and demolition or pole charges. This party may also include, though it may work independently, a flame-thrower party, consisting normally of two men; covering parties, normally two or three parties of verying size from three men with one light machine gun to full platoons; smoke party consisting of two or three men equipped with smoke candles or grenades; supply party, carrying reserves of equipment and ammunition, their strength depending on the size of the assault detachment.
Attacks most often are made at dawn, and are preceded normally by heavy artillery preparation, one purpose of which is to make shell holes which afford cover for the advancing assault detachments as they move forward. When the latter reach the wire obstacles surrounding the enemy position, Very signals are fired, calling for available artillery fire to be brought on the position to seal if off from flanking positions. If, by reason of proximity of the assault detachment to the artillery's danger zone, the former cannot be protected by covering fire, the smoke party may lay a smoke screen. The obstacle-clearing party then cuts one or more lanes through the wire, using wire cutters or bangalore torpedoes. The embrasure-blasting party passes through and attacks the embrasures. Flame throwers, if empoyed, are not intended by themselves to cause the surrender of the position, but to cover the advance of the embrasure-blasting party with its explosive charges which are considered the decisive weapon.
Antitank guns may be used to give close support to the embrasure-blasting party, being manhandled from cover to cover. They will attack the embrasure with armor-piercing ammunition and also give protection against possible tank-supported counterattacks.
It is possible that several such operations will be in progress on any one sector at any one time before an attack, in the first place to probe for weak spots, and in the second place to keep the enemy in uncertainty as to the final point of main effort of the attack. German feint attacks have often been delivered in such strength or with such violence as to be indistinguishable from the main attack.
Once a wedge has been firmly established in the enemy positions, the second phase of the attack begins. Troops so far held in their assembly area, or slowly making headway under cover of the artillery fire supporting the first phase of the attack, advance to cut the enemy position in two and to roll up the positions flanking the wedge.
Because the Germans anticipate enemy defenses organized in depth, and because these are unlikely to be fully disclosed until after the beginning of the attack, they do not make detailed plans for close-support covering fire, which would be hard to work out in advance, but tend to decentralize their support weapons and artillery for the second phase of the assault, in which reinforced battalions, companies, or platoons fight their own way forwards, independently of their flanking units, until they have gained their final objective.
Attack on lightly defended positions is more similar to the conduct of the attack by the Panzer division. The first phase is likely to be a deployed attack on a two-regiment front, the third regiment in reserve.
The Germans believe that in the advance extended formation of units is advantageous because it forces the enemy to scatter his fire.
To counteract the overwhelming Allied superiority in artillery and planes which frequently knock out the attack before it is under way, the Germans have been known to use the following method. Small groups of less then platoon size infiltrate mainly at night over a period of three to four days into the hostile battle position or at least well behind the advanced positions. During the day the infiltrated groups conceal themselves, but if caught pass themselves off as ordinary patrols to avoid raising suspicion. When the actual attack is launched, these units try to give the impression that the defender is surrounded and often cause great confusion.
When the Germans go over from the attack to the defense, even if only temporarily, they concentrate the supporting weapons around the commander of the unit that is to be supported, so that he can control the fire plan.
(5) Infantry-assault gun coordination. The assault guns are organized in assault gun battalions and are under the control of the division commander.
The Germans regard their self-propelled assault guns as decisive weapons to be employed particularly at the point of main effort. In cooperation with infantry they facilitate the penetration and breakthrough. These weapons, the Germans believe, complement artillery fire by their ability to follow the infantry right up to an objective. Their use for small actions before an attack is forbidden so as not to betray their presence. Suprise is sought by bringing them into position by night and camouflaging their assembly area. Used primarily to neutralize enemy support weapons at short ranges over open sights, assault guns are preferably employed in concentrations; to employ them singly or in comparatively small number is frowned upon by the Germans.
German assault guns advance with or just behind the infantry; they never go ahead of the infantry. When an objective is reached, the assault guns do not remain with the infantry while the position is being consolidated but retire about 1,000 yards to await further assignment.
In close combat the assault guns are rather helpless and therefore it is the task of the infantry to keep the enemy away from the assault guns. Newly-organized assault-gun escort batteries have the same task.
(6) Artillery. The Germans employ their field artillery in general support (Allgemeine Unterstützung) or in direct support (Unmittelbare Unterstützung), in the same manner as the US Army. The Germans consider the battalion as the firing unit. Splitting up an artillery battalion into batteries and placing batteries under an infantry battalion is the exception justified only when the infantry battalion has an idependent mission (for example, flank protection) or when the terrain does not permit unified fire control by artillery battalion commanders. Single commitment of guns is against German tactical doctrine. Various recent reports, however, describe deviations from the prescribed practice. Normally the germans do not employ single field artillery pieces for direct fire, as, for instance, the Russians do. But much use is made of roving guns (Arbeitsgeschütze), and of guns firing from alternate positions to make identification more difficult. Standing German orders call for the preparation of alternate firing positions, which, however, are used now only in cases of very heavy counterbattery fire, as the gasoline shortge keeps all movements to a minimum. The Germans often designate the number two piece as the roving gun, and, unlike the other pieces, it normally is not dug in. It frequently changes its position, which is about 250 to 300 yards from the rest of the battery.
The German artillery often engages a target from a lateral position. This deception, particularly identified with longer range weapons, is extended by employing another gun, often of lighter caliber, in a carefully coordinated attack on the same target. Flash simulators also increase the difficulty of visual location of active guns.
The first step to obtain infantry-artillery coordination is taken in the attack order and is assured by direct contact between the commanders, artillery liaison units (Artillerieverbindungskommando), and direct contact between artillery observers and infantry units.
The Germans also employ forward observers (Vorgeschobene Beobachter), who have the same task as their US counterpart.
The signal equipment necessary for communication between units, liaison units, and observers is only partly organic. The Germans keep most of the signal equipment centralized in the division signal battalion, which allots equipment as needed to the various units.
In the attack the greater part of the artillery supports the main effort. The remainder of the artillery is assigned the mission of flank protection against possible enemy counterattacks.
5. Meeting Engagement (Begegnungsgefecht)
In the meeting engagement the Germans believe that the advantage lies with the side which succeeds first in making effective preparation for the attack and thereby deprives the enemy of hes freedom of action. When both adversaries attack immediately from march columns, the decisive factors are the initiative of the junior officers and the efficiency of the troops. The senior commander quickly coordinates the functions of the various officers, while the advance guard secures for him freedom of action and the opportunity for a speedy deployment of his troops.
6. Pursuit
US and German tactical doctrines on pursuit are very much alike. Pursuit begins when the enemy is no longer able to maintain his position and abandons the combat area with the bulk of his forces. the object of the pursuit is the complete annihilation of the retreating or routed enemy. Effective pursuit requires great initiative from commanders of all echelons of command, who must not hesitate to start pursuit immediately, even when their troops are exhausted. The enemy must be given no time to pause to reorganize his forces and reconstitute his defense.
The pursuit is conducted on a broad front by means of fire and movement. When making for distant objectives every effort is made to get around the enemy's flanks and effect a surprise attack in his rear. However, care must be taken that enemy attack on one's own flank does not cause deflection from the original direction.
Fast-moving troops are used in the pursuit. These troops often are organized into pursuit or advance sections. The infantry scatters the enemy and by-passes resisting enemy strongpoints, leaving their destruction to units following in the rear. Part of the artillery places concentrations at the avenues of retreat, while the remainder desplaces forward in echelon, providing continuous support for the units in front. The Germans emphasize that a pursuit without the necessary artillery support may lead to disaster. Assault guns travel well forward with the rapidly advancing infantry, their comparatively heavy armament enabling them to crush quickly and decisively any enemy forces attempting to make a stand. Combat aviation bombs routes of retreat and strafes the hostile forces in direct support of the ground attack. Combat enigneers repair damaged roads, facilitating the continuous flow of supply and troops.
Pursuit, after a successful breakthrough, is regarded by the Germans as an ideal mission for the Panzer division. Panzer Grenadiers in armored half-tracks or in unarmored vehicles and tanks supplement each other in pursuing the enemy. During the advance on roads, the tanks form the point. However, through wooded areas or larger villages the Panzer Grenadiers take over the point. Tanks and Panzer Grenadiers stay close together so that either, according to the situation, can be committed as soon as enemy resistance is encountered. Tanks are normally not used in units of less than company strength.